| CONTENTS | 6 |
| ARTICLES | 10 |
| Alfred de Zayas / Jakob Th. Möller / Torkel Opsahl: Application of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights under the Optional Protocol by the Human Rights Committee | 10 |
| I. Introduction | 10 |
| 1. Procedure on Admissibility and Merits | 10 |
| a) Admissibility | 14 |
| b) Merits | 15 |
| c) Interim Measures | 15 |
| 2. Evidence and Burden of Proof | 16 |
| 3. Individual Opinions | 17 |
| 4. Duration of the Procedure | 17 |
| 5. Progress of Work | 17 |
| II. Issues Considered by the Committee | 18 |
| 1. Criteria for Admissibility under the Optional Protocol | 18 |
| a) The Standing of the Author | 18 |
| b) The Victim | 19 |
| c) Date of Entry into Force of the Covenant and the Optional Protocol | 20 |
| d) Individuals Subject to a State Party's Jurisdiction | 21 |
| e) Preclusion under Article 5 (2) (a) | 22 |
| f) Reservations by States Parties | 24 |
| g) Exhaustion of Domestic Remedies | 25 |
| h) Incompatibility | 26 |
| i) Substantiation of Allegations | 27 |
| j) Abuse of the Right of Submission | 27 |
| k) Competence of the Committee vis-à-vis National Law and Decisions | 28 |
| 2. Substantive Issues under the Covenant | 31 |
| a) Article 6: The Right to Life | 32 |
| b) Article 7: The Right not to be Subjected to Torture or to Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment | 35 |
| c) Article 9: The Right to Liberty and Security of Person | 37 |
| aa) Arbitrary Arrest and Detention (Article 9[1]) | 37 |
| bb) The Right to be Brought Promptly Before a Judge and Tried within a Reasonable Time (Article 9 [3]) | 39 |
| cc) The Right to Challenge the Lawfulness of one's Arrest and Detention (Article 9 [4]) | 40 |
| dd) The Right to Compensation for Unlawful Arrest or Detention (Article 9 [5]) | 41 |
| e) Article 12: The Right to Freedom of Movement and to Leave any Country | 43 |
| f) Article 13: The Right of an Alien not to be Expelled Arbitrarily from his Country of Residence | 44 |
| g) Article 14: The Right to a Fair Hearing | 45 |
| aa) Fair and Public Hearing by a Competent, Independent and Impartial Tribunal (Article 14 [ l ]) | 47 |
| bb) Minimum Guarantees i n the Determination of any Criminal Charge (Article 14 [3]) | 48 |
| h) Article 15: Nulla poena sine leg | 52 |
| i) Article 17: The Right to Freedom from Interference with one's Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence | 53 |
| j) Article 18: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion | 54 |
| k) Article 19: The Right to Hold Opinions, Freedom of Expression | 55 |
| l) Article 20: Prohibition of War Propaganda and the Right to Protection f r om Advocacy of Racial or Religious Hatred | 57 |
| m) Article 22: Freedom of Association | 58 |
| n) Article 23: The Right of the Family to Protection | 59 |
| o) Article 25: The Right to Take Part in Political Activity | 60 |
| p) Article 26: Discrimination on the Ground of Sex | 61 |
| q) Article 27: Protection of Minorities | 62 |
| 3. Derogation from Obligations under the Covenant | 62 |
| III. Conclusion | 64 |
| César Sepúlveda: The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States: 25 Years of Evolution and Endeavour | 66 |
| I. Introduction | 66 |
| II. Creation of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights | 67 |
| III. Development and Work of the Commission | 69 |
| 1. From 1960 through 1973 | 69 |
| 2. From 1974 to 1979 | 71 |
| 3. The Phase between 1980 and 1985 | 74 |
| IV. The Methods of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights | 80 |
| V. The Commission and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights | 84 |
| VI. Politics and Law in the Work of the Commission | 85 |
| VII. Future Prospects | 87 |
| Martin Bullinger: Freedom of Expression and Information: An Essential Element of Democracy | 89 |
| Part 1: Introduction | 91 |
| 1. Implications of Satellites and Cable Networks | 91 |
| 2. Different Aspects of the Convention and the Treaty of Rome | 93 |
| 3. Freedom of Expression by New Electronic Media as an Element of Democracy | 93 |
| 4. Individual Freedom of Expression as the Primary Subject of this Report | 94 |
| Part 2: Democracy in the Sense of Art. 10 of the Convention | 94 |
| 1. Freedom of Expression as a Foundation of Democracy | 94 |
| 2. Pluralistic Democracy | 95 |
| 3. Prerequisites of a Pluralistic Democracy | 96 |
| 4. Different Meanings of Freedom of Expression in Pluralistic and Non-Pluralistic Democracies | 97 |
| Part 3: Individual Freedom of Expression and Information as an Element of Democracy | 97 |
| I. Freedom of Expression in General | 98 |
| 1. A Prerequisite of Democratic Decision-Making., an Element of the Forming of Public Opinion | 98 |
| 2. Position of Aliens | 99 |
| 3. Content of Expression | 100 |
| a) Offending or Shocking Minority Statements Included | 100 |
| b) Enhanced Freedom of Political Expression | 100 |
| c) Commercial Character not Excluding Freedom of Expression | 102 |
| 4. Ways and Means | 103 |
| a) Technical Ways and Means | 103 |
| b) Financial Means | 104 |
| 5. Purely Negative Freedom or Necessity of „Affirmative“ State Action | 105 |
| II. Freedom to Receive Information and Ideas: Specific Aspects | 106 |
| 1. Freedom to Take Notice of Illegally Disseminated Information and Ideas | 106 |
| 2. Freedom to Seek Information | 106 |
| 3. Right to Information | 107 |
| a) Right to be Generally Informed by Mass Media and Public Authorities | 107 |
| b) Individual Access to Information Held by Public Authorities | 108 |
| Part 4: Freedom of Expression and Information by Print Media as an Element of Democracy | 109 |
| I. Non-Periodical Publications | 110 |
| 1. Leaflets, Tracts | 110 |
| 2. Books | 110 |
| II. Periodicals, in particular Newspapers | 111 |
| 1. Declining Plurality of Newspapers | 111 |
| 2. „Public Task“ of Newspapers , Shortcomings Concerning Individual Freedom of Expression | 112 |
| 3. State Duty to Affirm Freedom of Expression | 113 |
| 4. Means of Affirming Freedom of Expression | 114 |
| 5. Compensation by Other Media for Insufficient Newspaper Plurality | 115 |
| Part 5: Freedom of Expression and Information by Electronic Media as an Element of Democracy | 116 |
| A. General Remarks | 116 |
| B. Radio and Television | 117 |
| I. Freedom of Expression by Radio and Television in General | 117 |
| 1. Traditional Public Monopoly and its Impact on the Interpretation of Art. 10 | 117 |
| a) Licence Clause Originally Interpreted as Indiscriminately Authorizing a Public Monopoly (1968) | 117 |
| b) Possible Impact of a Public Monopoly on Freedom of Expression | 118 |
| c) Licence Clause Partly Reconsidered, (Affirmative Duty, Access to Broadcasting Time only in Exceptional Circumstances) | 118 |
| d) Reluctance to Grant Access to Individuals or Groups to Public Broadcasting in the Member States | 119 |
| 2. Changing Factual and Legal Conditions of Broadcasting as a Possible Inducement to further Reconsider Art. 10 | 120 |
| a) Progressive Abandonment of the Public Broadcasting Monopoly in the Member States | 121 |
| b) Structural Evolution of Radio and Television Underlying the Abandonment of the Monopoly | 122 |
| c) Factors and Conditions of a Reorientation on the European and National Level | 124 |
| 3. Individual Freedom to Impart Information and Ideas by Broadcasting (Access to Broadcasting) | 126 |
| a) Access of Programme-Providers to Private Broadcasting | 126 |
| aa) Access to Transmission Facilities | 127 |
| bb) Access to Programme Licences | 128 |
| cc) Restrictions Affecting Access, in particular Advertising Regulations | 128 |
| b) Access of Programme-Providers to Public Broadcasting | 130 |
| c) Access of Foreign Programme-Providers to Inland Broadcasting | 130 |
| aa) Foreign Providers of Normal Inland Programmes | 131 |
| bb) Foreign Programme-Providers of Inland Programmes for Inland Alien Communities | 132 |
| cc) Access of Foreigners to Public Broadcasting | 132 |
| d) Access of Foreign Broadcasters to Inland Retransmission | 133 |
| aa) Programmes Transmitted by Direct Broadcasting Satellites | 133 |
| bb) Programmes Transmitted by Telecommunication Satellites | 134 |
| cc) Satellites Creating a Need for a Harmonization of National Broadcasting Laws | 135 |
| II. Freedom to Receive Radio and Television Programmes | 135 |
| 1. Freedom to Receive Radio and Television Programmes in General | 136 |
| a) Inapplicability of the Licence Clause | 136 |
| b) Right to use an Individual Antenna | 136 |
| c) Right to Receive by Community Antennas all Programmes Normally Available in the Air | 136 |
| 2. Freedom to Receive Satellite Programmes in Particular | 137 |
| a) Freedom to Receive Direct Broadcasting Satellite (DBS) Programmes | 137 |
| b) Freedom to Receive Programmes Transmitted by Telecommunication Satellites | 138 |
| C. New Forms of Electromagnetic Delivery (New Electronic Services) | 139 |
| I. The Phenomenon | 139 |
| II. Freedom of Expression by New Electronic Services | 139 |
| 1. Inapplicability of the Licence Clause Concerning „Broadcasting“ (Art. 10 [1] 3) | 139 |
| 2. Possible and Partial Applicability of the License Clause Concerning Cinema Enterprises (Art. 10 [1] 3) | 140 |
| 3. Freedom to Seek Information by New Electronic Services | 141 |
| III. New Electronic Information Services as a Link between Print and Electronic Media, between Individual and Mass Communication | 141 |
| Part 6: Summary | 141 |
| Albert Bleckmann: The Subjective Right in Public International Law | 145 |
| Hâkon Eriksen: The Legal Status of the Sami in Norway | 164 |
| I. Introduction | 164 |
| 1. The General Situation of the Sami | 164 |
| 2. Norwegian Sami Policy | 165 |
| 3. The Sami's Demands | 165 |
| II. Protection of Culture: Language | 166 |
| 1. International Law | 166 |
| 2. Norwegian Law | 168 |
| a) Sami in the Nine-Year Basic School | 168 |
| aa) Legal Situation | 168 |
| bb) Proposals | 170 |
| b) Public Administration and the Sami Language | 170 |
| aa) Legal Situation | 170 |
| bb) Proposals | 171 |
| c) Other Factors of Significance for the Sami Language | 171 |
| d) Proposal for Incorporating Provisions on Protection of the Sami Culture in the Constitution | 172 |
| III. The Right to Land and Water | 172 |
| 1. International Law | 173 |
| 2. Norwegian Law | 174 |
| a) Recognized Rights over Land and Water | 175 |
| b) The Sami's Claims to Land and Water Based on Ancient Use | 177 |
| c) Proposals | 179 |
| IV. Self-Determination and Influence on Decisions | 180 |
| 1. International Law | 180 |
| 2. Norwegian Law | 181 |
| a) Legal Situation | 181 |
| b) Proposals for Regulations for Self-Government | 183 |
| V. Final Remarks | 185 |
| Wilhelm Wengler: Neue australische Verfassungsrechtsprechung zur Rassendiskriminierung | 187 |
| Summary | 194 |
| Jost Delbrück and Klaus Dicke: The Christian Peace Ethic and the Doctrine of Just War from the Point of View of International Law | 195 |
| Introductory Remarks | 195 |
| I. The Doctrine of Just War in the Development of International Law until the End of World War I | 197 |
| II. The bellum iustum Doctrine in the Light of the Prohibition of the Use of Force in Modern International Law | 200 |
| 1. The Abolishment of the Liberum ius ad bellum in Modern International Law | 201 |
| 2. The ius in hello | 203 |
| 3. International Law Interpretations of the Existing Law with Regard to the Doctrine of Just War | 204 |
| III. Tendencies towards a Renaissance of the Doctrine of Just War | 208 |
| Trutz Rendtorff: Christian Ethics and the Doctrine of Just War A Re-evaluation in the Nuclear Age | 210 |
| I. A New Debate on the Doctrine of Just War? | 210 |
| 1. Arguments Concerning a Renewal of the Debate „Christian Ethics and the Doctrine of Just War“ | 210 |
| 2. „Justification“ of War? Theological and Ethical Perspectives | 212 |
| II. The Meaning and Intention of the Doctrine of Just War | 215 |
| 1. Its Reception into Christian Ethics | 215 |
| 2. The Profile of the Doctrine of Just War | 217 |
| a) lus ad bellum | 217 |
| b) Iusta causa | 217 |
| c) Intentio recta | 217 |
| 3. The Historical Relevance of the Theory of „Just War“ | 218 |
| III. Ethical Problems of the Doctrine of Just War | 219 |
| 1. The Proportionality of Means and Ends in the Nuclear Age | 219 |
| 2. The Crisis of the Concept of Peace | 221 |
| IV. From the Doctrine of „Just War“ to the Doctrine of „Just Peace“ | 223 |
| 1. Thinking Towards Peace | 223 |
| 2. The Concept of Peace | 224 |
| 3. The Role of Military Force | 225 |
| 4. The Problem of Peace in the Conflict of Systems | 226 |
| 5. Internal and External Peace | 228 |
| V. The Churches and Peace | 229 |
| Elmar Rauch: Military Uses of the Oceans | 230 |
| I. Introduction | 230 |
| II. Law of the Sea Convention and Naval Missions | 234 |
| III. Analysis of the Treaty Provisions Concerning Military Activities | 239 |
| 1. Peaceful Uses of the Sea | 239 |
| 2. Innocent Passage | 243 |
| 3. Transit Passage | 245 |
| 4. Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage | 250 |
| 5. Exclusive Economic Zone | 251 |
| 6. Installations on the Continental Shelf and in the EEZ | 254 |
| 7. Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed Seas | 259 |
| 8. High Seas | 259 |
| 9. Deep Sea-Bed and Ocean Floor | 260 |
| 10. Protection of the Marine Environment | 261 |
| 11. Marine Scientific Research | 261 |
| 12. Settlement of Disputes | 266 |
| IV. Conclusions | 268 |
| L. F. E. Goldie: Special Problems Concerning Deep Seabed Mining in the Event of Non-Participation in UNCLOS: Prospect for a Reciprocating States Régime, Site Certainty, Investment Assurance and Potential Litigation | 269 |
| I. Introduction | 269 |
| II. Equity as an Instrumental Value (Efficiency) and as Categorical (Justice) – A Preliminary Stipulatio | 269 |
| III. Equity in International Law | 271 |
| 1. Equity and the „General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized Nations“ | 271 |
| a) Equity and the „General Principles“ Clause | 271 |
| b) The „General Principles of Law“ and the „Ex Aequo et Bono“ Clause | 272 |
| 2. The International Functions of Equity Under the „General Principles“ Clause | 273 |
| a) The Relation of International Equity (in the Sense of the Equitable Rules Accepted under Article 38 [1] [c] ) to International Law | 273 |
| b) A Provisional Definition | 274 |
| IV. Instrumental Equities and Individual States' Claims to Newly Available Natural Resources | 275 |
| 1. Introduction | 275 |
| a) An Overview | 275 |
| b) A Preliminary Explanation – And an Example | 276 |
| 2. Received Instrumental Equities in International Law | 276 |
| a) Abuse of Rights (and Unjust Enrichment Arising Therefrom) | 276 |
| b) Reliance and Notice as Equities | 277 |
| c) The Equities of Estoppel and Laches | 277 |
| d) Proportionality as an Instrumental Equity | 277 |
| V. Relating Distributive Equities and the Equities of Wealth Maximization | 278 |
| 1. The Question of Distributive Justice | 278 |
| a) A Perspective | 278 |
| b) The Categorical Equities and the Principle of Solidarity | 279 |
| 2. The Question of the „Right Mix“ in an International Justice System | 279 |
| a) Comparing the Categorical and Instrumental Equities | 279 |
| b) The Efficiency of the Equities of Wealth Enhancement | 280 |
| c) The Ordering of Equities for the Ends of Justice | 280 |
| d) Fairness and the Seabed Authority | 281 |
| VI. The Law of the Sea Treaty: The Balance of Equities and the Effects of Negotiation and of Signature: The Montego Bay Avowals | 282 |
| 1. The Avowals – A Comment | 282 |
| 2. The Duty to Refrain from Conduct which may Defeat the „Object and Purpose“ of the Treaty | 283 |
| a) Exposures Arising from Participation | 283 |
| b) An Artificial Dilemma | 286 |
| 3. The Pre-Emption Argument | 286 |
| 4. Views from the Seabeds Committee (lus Tertii) | 288 |
| VII. The Peaceful Co-Existence of Two or More Distinct Régimes | 289 |
| 1. Alternative Régimes | 289 |
| a) Peaceful Co-Existence | 289 |
| b) The „Mini-Treaty“ or „Reciprocal Regime“ Model – A Prototype | 290 |
| 2. A Problem of Pre-Emption | 292 |
| 3. A Proposed Blue Print | 293 |
| VIII. Conclusion | 297 |
| Uwe Jenisch: Sovereign Rights in the Arctic Maritime Policies and Practices after UNCLOS III | 298 |
| I. Old and New Uses in the Arctic | 298 |
| II. The New Maritime Zones | 304 |
| III. Maritime Policy and Practice | 307 |
| 1. Norway | 307 |
| 2. Soviet Union | 313 |
| 3. USA/Alaska | 317 |
| 4. Canada | 318 |
| 5. Greenland / Denmark | 319 |
| IV. The Central Part of the Arctic Ocean | 321 |
| Hubertus Welsch: The London Dumping Convention and Sub-Seabed Disposal of Radioactive Waste | 323 |
| I. The Ban on Dumping and the Concept of Dumping | 324 |
| II. Interpretation of the Concept of Dumping on the Basis of the Text of the Convention, its Preamble and Annexes | 327 |
| 1. The Meaning of Dumping | 327 |
| 2. The Context of Article III. 1 (a) (i) of the LDC | 328 |
| 3. The Context of Article III. 1 of the LDC | 329 |
| 4. The Full Text of the Convention including the Preamble | 330 |
| a) The Concepts of the „Marine Environment“ and „Pollution of the Sea“ | 330 |
| b) Reference to Resolution 2749 (XXV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations | 332 |
| c) Other References in the Text of the Convention | 333 |
| 5. The Annexes of the Convention | 334 |
| 6. Interpretation of the Text of the Convention together with the Preamble and Annexes. Results | 335 |
| III. Interpretation on the Basis of the International Atomic Energy Agency Definiton and Recommendations | 336 |
| IV. Other Subsequent Agreements among the Contracting Parties | 338 |
| V. Subsequent Practice by the Contracting Parties | 342 |
| VI. Supplementary Means of Interpretation | 343 |
| 1. Interpretation on the Basis of Preparatory Work | 343 |
| 2. Interpretation by Reference to the Circumstances of the Conclusion of the Convention or by other Means | 352 |
| VII. Result | 353 |
| VIII. Future Solutions | 354 |
| Mark M. Boguslavsky: Technology Transfer and International Law: the Soviet Approach | 356 |
| I. Significance of International Technology Transfer and Definition of the Notion of such Transfer | 356 |
| II. International Legal and Civil Legal Relations in the Transfer of Technology | 359 |
| III. Principles of International Law and Transfer of Tedinology | 362 |
| IV. International Legal Regulation of Transfer of Tedinology in Relations among CMEA Member Countries | 366 |
| V. Conclusion | 370 |
| Tobias Stoll: Proprietary Protection of Computer Software in National and International Perspective | 371 |
| I. Introduction | 371 |
| II. Technical Considerations | 372 |
| III. Patents and Copyright as Basic Concepts of Proprietary Protection | 375 |
| 1. The Minor Role of Patent Law | 376 |
| 2. Copyright | 379 |
| a) Objections against and Conditions of Protection | 380 |
| b) Scope of Protection | 383 |
| IV. Specialized Legislation in the Field of Computer Technology | 384 |
| V. Discussions on a Copyright – Type Software Protection | 387 |
| 1. Prevalence of Economically-Orientated Reasoning | 388 |
| 2. The Demand for Proprietary Protection | 390 |
| 3. The Issue of Technology | 392 |
| 4. Limitations of Exclusionary Rights | 396 |
| 5. Efficiency of Legal Protection | 398 |
| VI. International Aspects of Proprietary Protection of Computer Technology | 399 |
| 1. International Intellectual Property Protection as Applied to Computer Technology | 399 |
| 2. Options of International Protection | 401 |
| 3. Possible Areas of International Consensus | 404 |
| 4. The Technology Transfer Issue | 405 |
| 5. Advisability of Participating in International Protection | 406 |
| 6. Limitation of Rights and the Need for Differentiation | 408 |
| 7. Prospects of a Future International Protection Scheme | 409 |
| Wolfgang Seiffert: Völkerrechtliche Aspekte der Verlängerung des Warschauer Paktes | 410 |
| I. Form und Gründe für die Form der Verlängerung | 411 |
| II. Die Wirkungen der Verlängerung | 415 |
| III. Warschauer Pakt und Stationierung sowjetischer Truppen in seinen Mitgliedstaaten | 419 |
| IV. Völkerrechtliche Struktur des Warschauer Paktes und machtpolitische Realitäten | 421 |
| Summary | 424 |
| NOTE AND COMMENT | 426 |
| Roger D. Billings, Jr.: International Standards for Automotive Arbitration | 426 |
| Angela Rapp: The Legal Limits of the Director – General s Discretionary Authority to Renew or not to Renew Fixed Term and Temporary Appointments. A Review of the Cases Decided by the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO | 436 |
| I. Procedure | 437 |
| II. The Decision not to Renew a Contract | 437 |
| 1. Earlier Judgements | 437 |
| a) General Considerations | 437 |
| b) Certain Pleas which Can Set Limitations on the Director-General's Discretionary Authority | 439 |
| 2. Subsequent Judgements | 440 |
| REPORTS | 443 |
| Wulf Hermann: Die Tätigkeit des Nordischen Rates im Jahre 1984 | 443 |
| I. Die Generaldebatte | 444 |
| II. Die Fachausschüsse | 448 |
| 1. Der Wirtschaftsausschuß | 448 |
| 2. Der Kulturausschuß | 451 |
| 3. Der Sozial- und Umweltausschuß | 452 |
| 4. Der Verkehrsausschuß | 453 |
| 5. Der Rechtsausschuß | 454 |
| Michael Pehlke: Die Europäischen Gemeinschaften im Jahre 1984 | 457 |
| I. Überblick | 457 |
| II. Institutionelle Entwicklung | 459 |
| III. Ausbau des Gemeinsamen Marktes | 462 |
| IV. Politiken der Gemeinschaft | 465 |
| V. Die Außenbeziehungen der Gemeinschaft | 471 |
| VI. Rechtsprechung zum Gemeinschaftsrecht | 475 |
| Regine Ludwig: Die Tätigkeit des Europarates im Jahre 1984 | 479 |
| I. Organisatorische Fragen | Allgemeines | 479 |
| II. Behandlung allgemeinpolitisdier Themen im Europarat | 480 |
| III. Rechtsvereinheitlichung und Zusammenarbeit unter den Mitgliedstaaten | Konventionen und Übereinkommen | 489 |
| IV. Schutz der Menschenrechte | 492 |
| a) Individualbeschwerden nach Art. 25 EMRK | 492 |
| aa) Recht auf Freiheit und Sicherheit | 492 |
| bb) Recht auf faires Verfahren | 494 |
| cc) Dauer des Verfahrens | 495 |
| dd) Respektierung des Rechts auf Eigentum | 496 |
| ff) Recht auf Privatleben | 497 |
| gg) Haftbedingungen | 497 |
| hh) Verbot der Diskriminierung | 497 |
| ii) Recht auf freie Meinungsäußerung | 498 |
| b) Staatenbeschwerde nach Art. 24 EMRK | 498 |
| DOCUMENTATION | 507 |
| Nordischer Rat: Übereinkommen über die Zusammenarbeit zwischen Dänemark, Finnland, Island, Norwegen und Schweden (Helsinki-Abkommen) | 507 |
| Geschäftsordnung des Nordischen Rates | 520 |
| Book Reviews | 529 |
| Books Received | 548 |
| List of Contributors | 555 |
