| Contents | 6 |
| ARTICLES | 10 |
| Gennady M. Danilenko: The Theory of International Customary Law | 10 |
| I. Custom as a Source of International Law | 10 |
| 1. The Concept of International Custom | 10 |
| 2. International Custom as a Law-making Process: The Significance of Agreement (Consensus) | 12 |
| 3. International Custom as a Law-making Process: The Consciousness of Law-making | 15 |
| 4. International Custom as a Law-making Process: The Legal Regulation | 17 |
| II. Elements of International Custom | 20 |
| 1. Practice and opinio iuris: The Relationship | 20 |
| 2. International Practice | 21 |
| a) Subjects of Practice | 21 |
| b) The Practice of States: The Organs of Practice | 22 |
| c) Practice: The Types of Acts | 24 |
| d) Resolutions of the UN General Assembly | 26 |
| e) International Treaties | 27 |
| f) Active and Passive Customary Practice | 29 |
| g) Requirements of Practice | 30 |
| 3. Opinio iuris | 32 |
| a) The Concept of opinio iuris | 32 |
| b) Opinio iuris: Modes of Manifestation | 35 |
| c) UN General Assembly Resolutions and opinio iuris | 37 |
| d) Treaty Practice and opinio iuris | 39 |
| e) Conditions of Realisation of Individual opinio iuris | 40 |
| f) Individual opinio iuris: The Principle of the Persistent Objector | 42 |
| g) Opinio iuris: New States | 44 |
| h) Opinio iuris: The Change of Customary Law | 46 |
| III. Conclusion | 47 |
| T. W. Bennett: A Linguistic Perspective of the Definition of Aggression | 49 |
| W. Benedek and K. Ginther: Planned-Economy Countries and GATT: Legal Issues of Accession | 71 |
| I. Introduction | 71 |
| II. Basic Legal Issues of Accession to GATT | 72 |
| 1. GATT as a Multilateral Treaty with an Open Membership | 72 |
| 2. Is GATT an International Organization of a Universal Vocation? | 75 |
| 3. .Bona fide.-negotiations | 78 |
| III. The Participation of Planned-Economy Countries in the GATT | 80 |
| 1. Preliminary Considerations on Terminology | 80 |
| 2. Reasons for planned-economy countries’ interest in GATT | 81 |
| 3. Contents and Performance of the Special Protocol Approach | 83 |
| a) The Contents of the Special Protocols of Accession | 84 |
| aa) The Selective Safeguards Clause | 84 |
| bb) Special Consultation Procedure | 85 |
| cc) Special Surveillance | 86 |
| dd) Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Procedures | 86 |
| ee) The Issue of Quantitative Restrictions | 86 |
| ff) The Special Relations Among Members of the CMEA | 87 |
| b) The Issue of Accompanying Bilateralism | 88 |
| c) Conclusions | 89 |
| 4. Proposals for Improvement of the Accomodation of PECs in the GATT | 91 |
| a) Effective Reciprocity | 92 |
| b) Improving GATT Rules | 92 |
| c) ‘Investment Approach‘ with Strengthened Surveillance | 93 |
| 5. China, the Soviet Union and Bulgaria as Challenges to the GATT Treatment of Accessio | 94 |
| a) China's Application for Resumption of Active Membership | 95 |
| b) The New Soviet Interest in GATT | 97 |
| c) The Case of the Bulgarian Accession Request | 100 |
| aa) The History of Bulgaria’s Request | 100 |
| bb) General Economic and Legal Issues Raised with the Bulgarian Request | 101 |
| cc) Accession on a Normal Basis? | 103 |
| dd) Legal Aspects and Conclusions Regarding the Bulgarian Approach Towards Accession | 104 |
| IV. General Conclusion | 106 |
| Fernando Zegers Santa Cruz: Deep Sea-bed Mining Beyond National Jurisdiction in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Description and Prospects | 108 |
| I. Introduction | 108 |
| II. Deep Sea-bed Beyond National Jurisdiction: ‘Common Heritage of Mankind‘ | 108 |
| III. The International Sea-bed Authority: Part XI of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea | 109 |
| 1. Financial Provisions | 111 |
| 2. Protection of Land-Based Mining | 112 |
| 3. The International Sea-bed Authority | 113 |
| IV. Pioneer Investor Protection | 114 |
| V. Actual Situation and Prospects | 117 |
| VI. Conclusion | 119 |
| Francisco Orrego Vicuña: The Contribution of the Exclusive Economic Zone to the Law of Maritime Delimitation | 121 |
| I. Introduction | 121 |
| II. Distance .. Natural Prolongation: The Basis of Entitlement | 122 |
| 1. Structural Changes in the Conventional Régime | 122 |
| 2. Changing Trends in Judicial and Other Decisions | 123 |
| III. The Trend Toward a Single Maritime Boundary | 125 |
| 1. Conceptual Approaches | 126 |
| 2. Influence of the Decisions of Courts and Other Settlements | 127 |
| 3. The Evolving State Practice | 130 |
| IV. The Search for Equitable Principles in the Context of the Exclusive Economic Zone Régime | 132 |
| 1. The Role of the Courts in the Search for Equity | 132 |
| 2. Functional Nature of Delimitation Criteria | 134 |
| 3. Delimitation Agreements in State Practice | 136 |
| V. The Emerging Law of Maritime Delimitation: A Conclusion | 137 |
| Myron H. Nordquist and Margaret G. Wachenfeld: Legal Aspects of Reflagging Kuwaiti Tankers and Laying of Mines in the Persian Gulf | 139 |
| Overview | 139 |
| I. The Reflagging | 141 |
| 1. Introduction | 141 |
| 2. International Standards for Reflagging | 142 |
| a) 1958 Convention on the High Seas | 143 |
| b) 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea | 144 |
| c) 1986 United Nations Conference on Conditions for Registration of Ships | 145 |
| 3. Domestic Standards for Reflagging | 146 |
| 4. Application of the Reflagging Standards | 147 |
| a) The International Standards | 147 |
| b) The Domestic Standards | 148 |
| c) Conclusion | 152 |
| II. United States Presence in the Persian Gulf | 152 |
| 1. Introduction | 152 |
| 2. Freedom of the Seas | 154 |
| a) Historical Background | 154 |
| b) Freedom of Navigation | 155 |
| c) Passage Through Hormuz Strait | 156 |
| aa) United States and Iranian Positions | 156 |
| bb) State Practice in the Persian Gulf | 158 |
| cc) Analysis of the Claims | 159 |
| III. The Mining of the Persian Gulf | 160 |
| 1. International Law on Minin | 160 |
| a) 1907 Hague Convention | 160 |
| b) The Nicaragua Case | 161 |
| 2. The Iranian Mine-Laying Incident of 22 September 1987 | 162 |
| 3. Analysis of the Claims | 163 |
| IV. Conclusion | 165 |
| Dieter Fleck: Rules of Engagement for Maritime Forces and the Limitation of the Use of Force under the UN Charter | 166 |
| I. Historical Background | 167 |
| II. Legal Principles | 175 |
| 1. Relevance of the Definition of Aggression? | 176 |
| 2. Armed Attack | 177 |
| 3. Isolated Armed Attacks | 178 |
| 4. Low Intensity Conflicts | 179 |
| 5. Reprisals | 180 |
| 6. Use of Force which is Not Prohibited | 180 |
| 7. Conclusion | 181 |
| III. Present Issues | 182 |
| 1. Hostile Act and Hostile Intent | 182 |
| 2. Maritime Exclusion Zones | 183 |
| 3. General and Specific Content | 185 |
| 4. Deterrence and Confidence-Building | 185 |
| 5. Conclusion | 186 |
| Gerhard Hafner: Bemerkungen zur Funktion und Bestimmung der Betroffenheit im Völkerrecht anhand des Binnenstaates | 188 |
| I. Einleitung | 188 |
| II. Funktion des Begriffes der Betroffenheit | 188 |
| 1. Die Betroffenheit im völkerrechtlichen Vertragsrecht | 190 |
| a) Artikel 41 para. 1 lit. b (i) und Artikel 58 para. 1 lit. b (i) WVK | 190 |
| b) Artikel 60 para. 2 lit. b WVK | 191 |
| 2. Der verletzte Staat | 193 |
| 3. Der im justiziablen Streitfall befindliche Staat | 194 |
| 4. Der zur Verfahrensintervention berechtigte Staat | 195 |
| 5. Der betroffene Staat als Adressat des Völkergewohnheitsrechts | 196 |
| a) Bildung des Völkergewohnheitsrechts | 196 |
| b) Bindung an Völkergewohnheitsrecht | 197 |
| aa) Folgen der mangelnden Beteiligung an der Bildung von Völkergewohnheitsrecht | 198 |
| bb) Folgen des Unterlassens eines Protestes | 199 |
| 6. Gemeinsame Strukturen dieser Funktionen | 202 |
| III. Die inhaltliche Bestimmung der „Betroffenheit“ | 203 |
| 1. Die verschiedenen Bezeichnungen | 203 |
| a) Artikel 41 para. 1 lit. b (i) und Artikel 58 para. 1 lit. b (i) WVK | 203 |
| b) Artikel 60 WVK | 204 |
| c) Im Rahmen der Staatenverantwortlichkeit | 206 |
| d) Klagelegitimation | 207 |
| e) Das Interventionsrecht in Streitverfahren | 209 |
| f) Bildung von und Bindung an Völkergewohnheitsrecht | 211 |
| 2. Die gemeinsame Bestimmung der Betroffenheit | 213 |
| a) Die Rahmenbedingungen der Betroffenheit | 213 |
| aa) Völkerrechtskonformität | 213 |
| bb) Die Individualisierbarkeit der Betroffenheit | 214 |
| b) Kriterien und Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Betroffenheit | 214 |
| aa) Umweltfaktoren | 214 |
| bb) Verhalten | 216 |
| cc) Motivation | 216 |
| dd) Ziele staatlichen Verhaltens | 221 |
| ee) Nachahmung | 222 |
| ff) Falsifizierbarkeit | 222 |
| 3. Die normative Legitimierung zur Rechtsverfolgung | 223 |
| IV. Schlußfolgerungen | 228 |
| Summary | 228 |
| Christopher C. Joyner: The 1988 IMO Convention on the Safety of Maritime Navigation: Towards a Legal Remedy for Terrorism at Sea | 231 |
| I. Introduction | 231 |
| II. Defining the Offence: Scope and Effect | 232 |
| 1. Ambiguities of Terrorism as an International Crime | 232 |
| 2. Offences under the IMO Convention | 238 |
| 3. Piracy and Maritime Terrorism | 240 |
| 4. Insurgency and Maritime Terrorism | 244 |
| 5. Concluding Observations on the Offence | 247 |
| III. Jurisdictional Reach of the IMO Convention | 248 |
| 1. Jurisdictional Scope of the Convention | 248 |
| 2. Extradition and Prosecution under the Convention | 253 |
| 3. Ancillary Provisions of the Convention | 256 |
| IV. Appraisal of the Convention | 257 |
| V. Conclusion | 262 |
| Francesco Francioni: Maritime Terrorism and International Law: The Rome Convention of 1988 | 264 |
| I. Background | 264 |
| II. Scope and Substance of the Convention | 270 |
| 1. Definition of the Offence | 270 |
| 2. Official Terrorism | 273 |
| 3. The Geographic Scope | 274 |
| 4. Straits | 275 |
| 5. Types of Vessels | 276 |
| 6. Jurisdiction | 277 |
| 7. The Duty to Prosecute or Extradite | 280 |
| 8. Mutual Assistance and Co-operation | 282 |
| 9. Dispute Settlement | 283 |
| III. Main Deficiencies | 283 |
| IV. Neglected Issues | 286 |
| V. Conclusion | 288 |
| Emil Konstantinov: International Terrorism and International Law | 290 |
| I. Introduction | 290 |
| II. The Concept of „International Terrorism“ | 291 |
| III. Individual „International Terrorism“ | 296 |
| IV. State Terrorism | 300 |
| V. National Liberation Movements and International Terrorism | 303 |
| VI. Conclusion | 307 |
| Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im: Islamic Ambivalence to Political Violence: Islamic Law and International Terrorism | 308 |
| I. Political Violence and International Terrorism | 310 |
| 1. Terrorism in Historical and Comparative Perspectives | 311 |
| 2. Defining Terrorism in the Modern Context | 311 |
| 3. The Moral Dimension | 313 |
| 4. A Legal Definition of Terrorism | 313 |
| II. Nature and Sources of Islamic Law | 315 |
| 1. The Sources and Development of Shari’a | 316 |
| 2. The Shi’a Perspective(s) | 318 |
| 3. The Nature and Modern Application of Shari’a | 320 |
| a) The Nature of Shari’a | 320 |
| b) Historical Application of Shari’a | 321 |
| c) Contemporary Application of Shari’a | 322 |
| III. Islamic International Law in Historical Context | 323 |
| 1. Impact of the Historical Context on the Principles of Shari’a | 323 |
| 2. Islamic International Law in the Present Context | 324 |
| IV. Shari’a and Political Violence | 325 |
| 1. Antagonism and Use of Force Against Non-Muslims | 325 |
| 2. Regulation of Use of Force and Peace Treaties | 330 |
| 3. Implications for Conduct of Individual Persons and Groups | 332 |
| V. Towards an Islamic Contribution to the Rule of Law in International Relations | 334 |
| L. C. Green: Terrorism, the Extradition of Terrorists and the ‘Political Offence‘ Defence | 338 |
| Werner Ader: International Law and the Discretion of the State to Handle Hostage Incidents – cui bono? | 373 |
| I. | 374 |
| II. | 393 |
| III. | 414 |
| Robert A. Friedlander: So Proudly They Failed: The Reagan Administration and the Gradual Disintegration of U.S. Counter-Terror Policy | 416 |
| I. Preview: Jimmy Carter and the Iranian Hostage Crisis | 416 |
| II. Reagan’s First Term – Rhetoric versus Reality | 422 |
| III. Reagan’s Second Term, Part I – TWA 847, Achille Lauro, and the Libyan Raid | 430 |
| IV. Reagan’s Second Term, Part II – Iran-Contra: Why Did It Happen and What Does It Mean? | 439 |
| V. Postscript: U.S. Counter-Terrorism and the Reagan Era in Perspective | 445 |
| Wilhelm Wengler: Völkerrechtliche Schranken der Beeinflussung auslandsverknüpften Verhaltens durch Maßnahmen des staatlichen Rechts | 449 |
| Summary | 478 |
| Leo J. Raskind: The Continuing Process of Refining and Adapting Copyright Principles | 479 |
| I. Introduction | 479 |
| II. The Historical Perspective | 482 |
| III. The Shifting Basis of Map Protection | 485 |
| IV. Suggested Alternative | 500 |
| V. Conclusion | 509 |
| Klaus-Jürgen Kuss: Judicial Review of Administrative Decisions in the Soviet Union and other East European Countries | 511 |
| I. Introduction: Historical Background | 511 |
| II. Post-Revolutionary Development of Judicial Review of Administrative Decisions in Russia/the Soviet Union | 516 |
| III. The Statute of 30 June 1987 | 519 |
| 1. Theoretical Bases | 519 |
| 2. Object of Review: Actions of Officials | 519 |
| 3. Right of Complaint | 523 |
| 4. Organization of Procedure | 524 |
| 5. Powers of Court | 526 |
| 6. Judicial Review of Administration and Reform of Justice | 527 |
| IV. Post-War Development of Judicial Review of Administrative Decisions in other East European Countries | 528 |
| 1. Poland | 529 |
| 2. Czechoslovakia | 534 |
| 3. Hungary | 538 |
| 4. Yugoslavia | 542 |
| 5. Romania | 545 |
| 6. Bulgaria | 548 |
| 7. German Democratic Republic | 551 |
| V. Summary: Comparative Analysis | 552 |
| Reinhard Müller and Mario Müller: Co-operation as a Basic Principle of Legal Régimes for Areas Beyond National Sovereignty – with Special Regard to Outer Space Law | 554 |
| I. The Obligation to Co-operate in General International Law | 554 |
| II. Characteristic Elements of the Legal Régimes for Areas Beyond National Sovereignty | 556 |
| III. Substantiating the Peaceful Use and Legal Issues of Co-operation | 559 |
| 1. The High Seas | 559 |
| 2. Antarctica | 560 |
| 3. Outer Space and Celestial Bodies | 561 |
| a) Present International Law and the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space | 561 |
| b) International Co-operation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes | 563 |
| c) Co-operation and Prohibition of Appropriation | 569 |
| IV. Result | 572 |
| V. Conclusion | 573 |
| NOTES AND COMMENTS | 575 |
| Thomas Roeser: The Arms Embargo of the UN Security Council against South Africa: Legal and Practical Aspects | 575 |
| I. Introduction | 575 |
| II. Arms Supplies as a Topic of the SC | 576 |
| 1. The Hitherto Existing Embargo Resolutions with the Exception of South Africa | 577 |
| 2. The Steps of the SC against South Africa | 578 |
| III. The Legal Effects of S/Res. 418 (1977) | 581 |
| 1. Legal Nature of the Arms Embargo | 581 |
| a) Article 41 of the UN Charter as a Legal Basis for a Mandatory Arms Embargo of the SC | 581 |
| b) The Conflict in the Southern Africa as a „Threat to the Peace“ | 582 |
| 2. Legal Obligations of the States Resulting from the Arms Embargo of the SC | 586 |
| 3. Arms Supplies to the South African Liberation Movements | 589 |
| IV. Practical Problems in the Implementation of S/Res. 418 (1977): The Determination of the Embargo Object | 590 |
| I. The Term of Arms in the Work of the United Nations: The List of the „Collective Measures Committee“ | 591 |
| 2. The Definition of „Arms and Related Matériel“ in the SC Resolutions Against South Africa | 592 |
| Thomas Fitschen: Closing the PLO Observer Mission to the United Nations in New York: The Decisions of the International Court of Justice and the U.S. District Court, Southern District of New York | 596 |
| I. Introduction | 596 |
| II. Background of the Dispute | 597 |
| III. Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate under Section 21 of the United Nations Headquarters Agreement of 20 June 1947 – The Advisory Opinion of 26 April 1988 | 605 |
| 1. The Proceeding of the Court | 605 |
| 2. Reasoning of the Advisory Opinion | 606 |
| a) Existence of a „Dispute“ in the Sense of Section 21 | 609 |
| b) Qualification of the Dispute | 611 |
| c) Dispute not Being Settled by Negotiation or other Agreed Mode of Settlement | 612 |
| IV. ‘United States v. The Palestine Liberation Organization et al.‘: The Decision of the United States District Court, Southern District of New York | 613 |
| 1. The Position of the Plaintiff | 613 |
| 2. The United Nations as amicus curiae | 614 |
| 3. The Position of the Defendants | 615 |
| 4. The Decision of the District Court | 615 |
| a) Jurisdiction of the Court | 616 |
| b) Scope and Content of the Headquarters Agreement | 617 |
| c) Conflict Between the ATA and the Headquarters Agreement | 619 |
| d) Conclusion | 620 |
| Volker Röben: A Report on Effective Protection of Minorities | 622 |
| I. Introduction | 622 |
| II. Protection of Minorities under the League of Nations | 626 |
| III. The Protection of Minorities under the UN | 629 |
| IV. Formal and Material Possibilities of the Protection of Minorities under Modern International Law | 633 |
| V. Concluding Remarks | 639 |
| REPORT | 640 |
| Dørte Pardo López: Die Tätigkeit des Europarates im Jahre 1987 | 640 |
| I. Organisatorische Fragen | Allgemeines | 640 |
| II. Behandlung allgemeinpolitischer Themen im Europarat | 641 |
| III. Rechtsvereinheitlichung und rechtliche Zusammenarbeit zwischen den Mitgliedstaaten, Verträge und Empfehlungen | 646 |
| IV. Schutz der Menschenrechte | 650 |
| DOCUMENTATION | 681 |
| Declaration of Independence of the Palestinian State | 681 |
| In the Name of God, The Compassionate, The Merciful DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE | 681 |
| Book Reviews | 685 |
| Books Received | 730 |
| List of Contributors | 740 |
