| Contents | 6 |
| ARTICLES | 10 |
| René Barents: The Community and the Unity of the Common Market. Some Reflections on the Economic Constitution of the Community | 10 |
| I. Introduction | 10 |
| II. The Unity of the Common Market | 11 |
| 1. The Internal Market | 12 |
| 2. Freedom of Trade and Undistorted Competition | 13 |
| 3. Market Unity | 14 |
| III. The Common Market and the Member States | 16 |
| 1. Free Movement | 16 |
| a) The Country of Destination Principle | 16 |
| b) The Country of Origin Principle | 16 |
| 2. Undistorted Competition | 19 |
| a) Distortion of Competition | 19 |
| b) Disparities | 20 |
| 3. Discrimination(s) and Distortion(s) | 21 |
| IV. The Common Market and the Community | 22 |
| 1. Unity of the Market and Non-discrimination | 22 |
| 2. The Case Law | 23 |
| 3. Non-Discrimination or Non-interference With Trade | 25 |
| V. Non-Discrimination and Differentiation | 27 |
| 1. Discrimination and Renationalization | 27 |
| 2. Duty to Differentiate | 27 |
| 3. Differentiation in the Framework of Discretionary Policy | 29 |
| 4. Complementary Actions of Member States | 31 |
| 5. Proportionality and Non-Discrimination | 31 |
| VI. Exceptions to the Unity of the Common Market | 32 |
| 1. Emergencies and Absence of Alternatives | 32 |
| 2. Transitional and Political Difficulties | 33 |
| a) The Claw-back | 34 |
| b) A More Lenient Approach? | 36 |
| VII. Market Unity as an Element of the Economic Constitution of the Community | 36 |
| Michael K. Addo: A Critical Analysis of the Perennial International Economic Law Problems of the EEC-ACP Relationship | 38 |
| I. Introduction | 38 |
| II. The Development and Ethos of Lomé | 41 |
| III. The Recurring Problems | 45 |
| 1. Self-interest in a Co-operative Setting | 45 |
| a) The Effect of the Shift in Legal Basis from Co-existence to Co-operation | 45 |
| b) The Place of Sovereignty in Unequal Co-operation | 47 |
| IV. Accountability Through Justiciability | 55 |
| 1. Other A ttempts at Essential A ccountability | 63 |
| a) Participation | 63 |
| b) Human Rights | 64 |
| V. Conclusion | 66 |
| Iain Cameron and Frank Horn: Reservations to the European Convention on Human Rights: The Belilos Case | 70 |
| I. Introduction | 70 |
| II. The Facts of the Case | 70 |
| III. The Approach of the Commission | 72 |
| IV. The Approach of the Court | 75 |
| V. Issues Raised by the Case | 77 |
| 1. | 78 |
| a) The Distinction Between Reservations and Interpretative Declarations | 78 |
| b) The Scope of the Swiss Proviso | 80 |
| c) The Nature of the Swiss Proviso | 82 |
| 2. | 88 |
| a) The Competence of the Commission and the Court to Determine the Validity of Reservations | 88 |
| b) A Common European Public Order | 93 |
| c) Implications for Other Treaty Régimes | 96 |
| 3. The Prohibition of General Reservations | 98 |
| a) The Concept of Generality | 100 |
| b) Imprecise Reservations | 100 |
| c) Specific Reservations to „General Reservations“ | 101 |
| d) „Overspill“ Reservations | 104 |
| e) Flexible Reservations | 104 |
| f) The Relationship Between Incompatibility and Generality | 106 |
| 4. The Requirement of a Brief Statement Under Article 64 (2) | 110 |
| 5. | 116 |
| a) The Effects of Invalid Reservations | 116 |
| b) Subsequent Developments | 118 |
| 6. Implications for Other Reservations to the Convention | 120 |
| a) Austria | 122 |
| b) Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) | 123 |
| c) Finland | 124 |
| d) France | 124 |
| e) Ireland | 125 |
| f) Liechtenstein | 125 |
| g) Malta | 126 |
| h) Portugal | 127 |
| i) San Marino | 127 |
| j) Spain | 127 |
| k) Switzerland | 127 |
| 1) The Turkish and Cypriot Declarations Under Article 25 | 128 |
| VI. Conclusions | 129 |
| Karl Zemanek: Austria and the European Community | 131 |
| I. Introduction | 131 |
| II. Austria's Permanent Neutrality | 132 |
| 1. The Concept of Permanent Neutrality | 132 |
| a) Permanent Neutrality as a Legal Status | 132 |
| b) Permanent Neutrality as a Function of Balance of Power | 134 |
| c) A Comprehensive View of Permanent Neutrality | 136 |
| 2. Permanent Neutrality in the Post-War European System | 137 |
| a) Austria's Situation in 1955 | 137 |
| b) The Neutrals in the European System and the Challenge of European Integration | 138 |
| c) A New European System? | 141 |
| III. Neutrality and EEC Membership | 143 |
| 1. Situations Requiring Specific Neutral Action | 144 |
| a) A „War“ in Which One or More EEC Members Confront One or More Non-Members | 144 |
| aa) Transit | 145 |
| bb) Uniform Application of Restrictions or Prohibitions Concerning the Export of War Material | 146 |
| b) A „War“ Between Non-Members of the EEC | 147 |
| c) A Politically-Motivated Embargo in Peace Time | 147 |
| 2. The Central Issues | 148 |
| a) The EEC Practice of Trade Embargoes | 149 |
| b) The Exception of „Arms, Munitions and War Material“: Article 223 EECT | 153 |
| c) The Exception of Special Situations: Article 224 EECT | 155 |
| aa) The Situations | 155 |
| bb) The Measures | 157 |
| cc) The Limitations | 159 |
| d) Control of the Freedom: Article 225 EECT | 160 |
| IV. Neutrality and the Political Evolution of the EC | 162 |
| 1. Building Political Identity: The EPC | 162 |
| 2. Moving Towards Union: Are There Limitations for a Permanently Neutral State? | 165 |
| Donald M. McRae and L. Rita Theil: The Implications of Europe 1992: A Canadian Perspective | 167 |
| I. Introduction | 167 |
| II. Canada and World Trade | 168 |
| 1. Constitutional Framework | 168 |
| 2. The International Trade Framework | 169 |
| a) Canada and the GATT | 169 |
| b) Canada-United States Free Trade | 170 |
| III. Canada and the European Community | 171 |
| IV. The Impact of 1992 on Canada: An Overview | 173 |
| V. The Impact of 1992 on Canada: The Telecommunications Industry | 174 |
| 1. Introduction: The Canadian Telecommunications Industry | 174 |
| 2. The Telecommunications Industry in the EC: The Imperative to Restructure | 175 |
| 3. The Impact of Increased Market Size and Competition | 177 |
| 4. The Impact of the Lowering of Technical Barriers and the Setting of Standards | 178 |
| 5. The Opening of Public Procurement | 181 |
| VI. The Problem of Reciprocity | 182 |
| VII. Conclusion | 183 |
| Thomas Läufer: Haushalt und Finanzen als Konfliktfeld der EG-Organe und der EG-Mitgliedstaaten | 185 |
| I. Einleitung | 185 |
| II. Haushaltsstruktur der EG | 186 |
| III. Haushaltsverfahren der EG | 188 |
| IV. Haushaltskonflikte seit 1975 | 190 |
| 1. Kompetenzabgrenzung durch Ausgabenklassifizierung | 190 |
| 2. Anwendung des Höchstsatzes | 192 |
| 3. Mittelbewilligung und Rechtsetzung | 195 |
| a) Haushaltsplan als Rechtsgrundlage | 195 |
| b) Ausgabenplafondierung durch Ratsbeschluß | 197 |
| 4. Kapitalhaushalt der EG | 198 |
| 5. Überblick über die Haushaltskonflikte | 198 |
| V. Interinstitutionelle Zusammenarbeit beim Haushalt | 199 |
| 1. Konzertierung | 199 |
| a) Zweck | 199 |
| b) Praxis | 203 |
| c) Bewertung | 205 |
| 2. Haushaltstrialog | 206 |
| a) Zweck | 206 |
| b) Praxis | 207 |
| c) Bewertung | 208 |
| 3. Haushaltsdisziplin | 209 |
| a) Zweck | 209 |
| aa) Maßnahmen von 1984 | 209 |
| bb) Beschlüsse von 1988 | 211 |
| b) Praxis | 212 |
| c) Bewertung | 213 |
| VI. Reformempfehlungen | 213 |
| Summary | 215 |
| M. Fitzmaurice: Common Market Participation in the Legal Regime of the Baltic Sea Fisheries | 217 |
| I. Introduction | 217 |
| II. Accession of EC to the Gdansk Convention | 217 |
| 1. Effect of Introduction of the EC Common Fisheries Policy | 217 |
| 2. Summary of the Provision of the EC Fisheries Policy | 218 |
| 3. Accession of the EC to the Gdansk Convention | 221 |
| III. Recommendations of the IBSFC | 224 |
| 1. The Veto Procedure | 224 |
| 2. The Opting-Out Procedure | 224 |
| IV. Conservation Measures Since Amendment of the Gdansk Convention | 225 |
| 1. 1984 Fisheries Rules | 225 |
| 2. The Rôle of the ICES | 226 |
| 3. The Effectiveness of the IBSFC | 227 |
| V. Exclusive Economic Zones | 228 |
| 1. Introduction of EEZ by USSR | 228 |
| 2. Legal Rights over Fishing in the EEZ | 229 |
| 3. Regulations of Fisheries in the EEZ of the USSR | 230 |
| VI. Fisheries and Delimitation Agreements between Baltic States | 231 |
| 1. Introductory | 231 |
| 2. The New Delimitation Agreements | 232 |
| 3. Fisheries Agreements with the EC Generally | 234 |
| 4. Fishing Agreements between Sweden and the EC | 236 |
| VII. Conclusions | 237 |
| Federico Durân Lopez: The Harmonisation of the Labour Systems of the Member States of the E.E.C. in the Perspective of European Unity | 239 |
| I. The Treaty of Rome and Social Objectives | 239 |
| II. The Single Act and the Demands, in Social Areas, for European Unity | 245 |
| III. The Harmonisation of Labour Regulations in the Internal Market | 249 |
| Ruth Nielsen: The Contract of Employment in the Member States of the European Communities and in Community Law | 261 |
| I. Introduction | 261 |
| II. National Differences, a Comparative Analysis | 263 |
| 1. The Concept of the Contract of Employment | 263 |
| 2. Consent, Object, Cause and Consideration in Contract Law | 263 |
| 3. Defining Elements of the Contract of Employment: Subordination | 264 |
| 4. Subjective Scope of the Contract of Employment and the Employment Relationship | 265 |
| III. Freedom of Contract | 265 |
| 1. The General Principle | 266 |
| 2. Atypical Employment Contracts | 268 |
| a) Fixed Term Contracts | 268 |
| b) Temporary Work Contracts | 269 |
| c) Part-Time Employment Contracts | 270 |
| 3. Form and Proof of the Contract of Employment | 272 |
| 4. Recruitment Procedures and Worker Participation | 272 |
| 5. Written form and Language requirements | 273 |
| a) Continental European Countries | 274 |
| b) Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom | 274 |
| IV. Written Particulars | 275 |
| V. Community Law | 276 |
| 1. Stages in the Development of Community Law | 276 |
| 2. Why is the Law on the Contract of Employment of Interest to the Community? | 280 |
| a) Distortion of Competition | 280 |
| b) Free Movement | 280 |
| c) Improvement of Working Conditions | 281 |
| 3. Is the Contract of Employment Covered by Existing Community Legislation? | 281 |
| 4. Current Proposals | 284 |
| Erika Szyszczak: L'Espace Sociale Européenne: Reality, Dreams, or Nightmares? | 287 |
| I. Introduction | 287 |
| II. Legal and Political Problems With the Social Charter | 289 |
| III. The Impact of the Equal Treatment Programme | 294 |
| 1. The Development of the Equal Treatment Programme | 294 |
| 2. The Impact of the Equal Treatment Programme in the United Kingdom | 300 |
| 3. Enforcement of Community Rights | 302 |
| IV. Direct Effect and Supremacy of Community Law | 303 |
| V. Towards a More Effective Enforcement of Community Social Rights? | 306 |
| VI. Conclusion | 309 |
| Rüdiger Wolfrum: Purposes and Principles of International Environmental Law | 311 |
| I. Introduction | 311 |
| II. The Elements of International Law Concerning the Protection of the Environment | 312 |
| 1. Prohibition of Transfrontier Damage to Components of the Environment | 312 |
| 2. Use and Protection of Commonly Shared Natural Resources | 321 |
| 3. The Utilization and Protection of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction | 324 |
| 4. Environmental Problems of Global Relevance | 330 |
| Wolfgang Spröte: Negotiations on a United Nations Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations | 334 |
| I. Introduction | 334 |
| II. The Background of the Negotiations on the Code of Conduct | 335 |
| 1. The Developments in the Early Seventies | 335 |
| 2. Thirteen Years of Negotiations on the Code of Conduct | 337 |
| III. The Structure and the Main Provisions of the Latest Draft Code of Conduct | 340 |
| IV. Main Outstanding Issues and Chances for Their Resolution | 347 |
| Uwe Jenisch: Die Ostsee als Wirtschafts- und Lebensraum Wirtschaft, Umweltschutz, Seerecht | 352 |
| I. Geopolitische und wirtschaftliche Fakten | 352 |
| II. Auswirkungen des neuen Internationalen Seerechts | 359 |
| 1. Küstenmeergrenzen | 360 |
| 2. Meerengen | 363 |
| 3. Sonder status für die Ostsee? | 364 |
| 4. Fischereizonen, Festlandsockel- und Wirtschaftszonen | 366 |
| 5. Seegrenzprobleme | 370 |
| a) Dänemark / Schweden | 370 |
| b) Gotland-Problem | 371 |
| c) Bornholm-Problem | 371 |
| d) Oderbucht | 372 |
| e) Offene Seegrenzprobleme | 375 |
| III. Fischereizusammenarbeit / Danziger Übereinkommen | 375 |
| IV. Umweltschutz/Helsinki-Übereinkommen | 379 |
| Summary | 385 |
| Jagdeep S. Bhandari: International Debt Litigation in United States Courts | 388 |
| I. Introduction | 388 |
| II. Types of Cases | 389 |
| 1. Loan Transactions | 390 |
| 2. Eurodollar Transactions | 390 |
| 3. Expropriation Cases | 391 |
| III. Defenses of Debtors | 391 |
| 1. Sovereign Immunity | 391 |
| a) Who May Plead the Defense | 393 |
| b) When the Defense May Be Successfully Asserted | 394 |
| aa) The Waiver Exception (28 USC § 1605 (a) (1)) | 394 |
| bb) The Expropriation Exception | 396 |
| cc) The Commercial Activity Exception | 396 |
| 2. Comity | 399 |
| 3. Forum Non Conveniens | 401 |
| a) The Nature of the Forum Non Conveniens Doctrine | 402 |
| b) Obtaining a Forum Non Conveniens Dismissal | 403 |
| 4. Sovereign Compulsion | 405 |
| 5. Article VIII 2(b) | 406 |
| 6. Act of State | 409 |
| a) The Bernstein Exception | 411 |
| b) The Hickenlooper Amendment | 411 |
| c) Counterclaim Exception | 412 |
| d) The Treaty Exception | 412 |
| e) The Territorial Exception: Situs Rules | 413 |
| f) The Commercial Activity Exception | 415 |
| 7. Other Defenses: Force Majeure, Supervening Illegality, Legal Impossibility | 418 |
| IV. Executive and Judicial Participation | 421 |
| V. Conclusion | 426 |
| NOTES AND COMMENTS | 427 |
| Michael Bothe: International Regulation of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste | 427 |
| I. Introduction | 427 |
| II. A Brief History of Attempts made to deal with the Problem of Transboundary Movement of Waste | 428 |
| III. The Basic Obligations according to the Basel Convention | 429 |
| IV. The Scope of Application of the Basel Convention Régime | 431 |
| 1. Definitions | 431 |
| 2. Nuclear Waste | 432 |
| V. Additional and Collateral Measures | 433 |
| 1. The Prevention of Illegal Traffic | 433 |
| 2. Reduction of the Generation of Waste | 434 |
| 3. Adequate Treatment and Disposal | 434 |
| 4. The Principle of Subsidiarity | 434 |
| 5. Transparency | 435 |
| VI. The Problem of Responsibility | 435 |
| VII. Conclusion | 435 |
| César Sepulveda: Methods and Procedures for the Creation of Legal Norms in the International System of States: An Inquiry into the Progressive Development of International Law in the Present Era | 437 |
| I. Preliminary Observations | 437 |
| II. Characteristics of International Law in Our Time | 438 |
| III. „Traditional“ Sources and Modern Processes for the Formation of International Juridical Rules | 441 |
| IV. The Relationship Between International Politics and International Law | 446 |
| V. Parliamentary Diplomacy in the Formation Process of International Legal Norms | 447 |
| VI. The Quasi-Legislative Function of the General Assembly and Other Organs of the United Nations | 449 |
| VII. The Resolutions of the Ad-Hoc Conferences as Processes for the Creation of Norms of International Law | 453 |
| VIII. The Codifying Function of the United Nations' International Law Commission | 456 |
| REPORT | 465 |
| Carsten Krage: Die Tätigkeit des Nordischen Rates im Jahre 1989 | 465 |
| I. Die ordentliche Jahrestagung | 465 |
| 1. Die Generaldebatte | 467 |
| 2. Die Fachausschüsse | 471 |
| a) Der Wirtschaftsausschuß | 471 |
| b) Der Sozial- und Umweltausschuß | 473 |
| c) Der Kommunikationsausschuß | 476 |
| d) Der Rechtsausschuß | 477 |
| e) Der Kulturausschuß | 479 |
| f) Der Haushalts- und Kontrollausschuß | 481 |
| II. Die außerordentliche Sitzung | 481 |
| III. Sonstige Ereignisse | 485 |
| Summary | 488 |
| Book Reviews | 491 |
| Books Received | 539 |
| List of Contributors | 545 |
